Bacon: Attack on Authority and Advocacy of Human Science

Francis Bacon, in New Organon, lays out tenets of self reliance and new outlooks in science, and he criticizes the fallacious ways of thinking based on given systems of philosophy.

I. Man can do and understand so much only as he has observed in fact or in thought of the course of nature.

II. The sciences they had at the time were/are merely systems for nice ordering and setting forth things already invented

III. Logic that is in use serves to just fix what seems to be erroneous, therefore does more harm than good.

IV. Axioms and theories already established should not avail for the discovery of new works. Therefore each new discovery has its own argument.

V. “Idols” are false notions that hamper human understanding

VI. There are four sets of Idols:

a. Idols of the Tribe – the false assertion that the sense of men is the measure of things

b. Idols of the Cave – each man having his own cave which obfuscates the light the of nature

c. Idols of the Market – The interaction of men, and by this discourse words are imposed according to the apprehension of the vulgar

d. Idols of the Theatre – idols which have immigrated into men’s minds from the various dogmas of philosophies, and also from wrong laws of demonstration

Principia Mathematica?!

Thesis: The experimental method is the means of acquiring knowledge.

-Senses provide the most reliable and real form of perception.

-Postulation of gravity, the force which pulls everything towards the center of the Earth.

-The moon gravitates toward the Earth and the sea gravitates toward the moon.

-General induction provides some of the most valuable hypotheses which can be built upon.

-God is the intellectual and powerful ruler of his universe, which he has mathematically designed to perfection.

W. Harvey: "On the Motions of the Heart"

William Harvey, by means of dissection and observation, concludes that much of what we know about the heart is the opposite of how it actually functions.

The heart has two positions, stiff and soft. It stiffens when it contracts, and softens when it rises and presses against the breast. At that point the pulse is felt externally.

When the heart contracts, it is pushing out blood. If one were too feel the heart during the process, one would feel it harden. This action is similar to what the muscles of the body do. The hardness is the product of tension.


When the heart contracts and pushes out the blood, it can be seen to grow paler in color, and then brighten again when more blood rushes in.

It was previously believed that the heart was pushing out blood when one felt the pulse on one’s chest, but on the contrary that is when the heart is filling up with blood and preparing to push it out when it contracts.

Timothy Bulso

Cardinal Bellarmine: Attack on the Copernican Theory

Cardinal Bellarmine argues against Copernicus’s heliocentric theory, citing its contradiction to scripture and church tradition by relying on the authority of the church (old authority) rather than observation of nature (new).

• A heliocentric universe would render scripture false, therefore it would be dangerous to pursue such an idea and doubt would be cast on the whole of scripture
• Even if scripture were to be interpreted as supporting the theory, it still goes against the consensus of the Holy Fathers
• Scripture clearly defends a geocentric universe (relying on the Bible as an authority)

Newton, "principia Mathematica"

Thesis: Newton introduced many new concepts regarding gravity, movement, and scientific thinking while the whole time stressing reason and not making assumptions not proved in experimental procedures.

I. Stressed simplicity

a. Nature is happy with simplicity

b. Do not try to complicate matters by being superfluous

II. If something has been proved through an experiment, it can not be ignored for the sake of other aspirations

a. The only way one can ignore the results of an experiment is if another experiment proves it to be wrong

III. Recognized the existence of gravity

a. Knew it extended a long way and the strength decreased with an increase in distance

IV. Still attributed the creation of everything beautiful in the world to God

a. Light, especially, was the work of God

b. Said that God still belonged in parts of science

Perry, v. 2- Isaac Newton- Principia Mathematica

Perry, v. 2- Isaac Newton- Principia Mathematica

Will Stewart

Thesis: In his Principia Mathematica, Newton outlines universal law and asserts the experimental method as a way to acquire knowledge.

Rule 1. Nature does nothing in vain, values simplicity

Rule 2. Similar phenomena can be attributed to the same causes

-meteorites in Europe and America

-fire in a stove and the sun

Rule 3. Qualities found in all bodies subject to experiment can be assumed to be present in all bodies everywhere.

-Inertia

-all bodies, and therefore all particles, are mobile

Rule 4- anything experimentally determined to be true is considered to be true until proven wrong

Gravity- determined by quantity of particles

-discovery using impenetrability, mobility, and impulsive forces

God and the Universe

-star systems were placed by God immense distances from each other

-god directly rules over everything

-he is living, intelligent, and powerful

-he is intangible, and humans cannot understand his being

Nicolaus Copernicus – On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres

To Pope Paul III, asking him to protect him from vilification

Addresses the Pope Paul III and acknowledges that his statement will cause a lot of controversy

· Believes that false ideas should rebuked

· Philosopher’s ideas are “not subject to the judgment of ordinary persons”

“Id debated with myself for a long time whether to publish the volume which I wrote to prove the earth’s motion or rather to follow the example of Pythagoreans and others”

· Pytagoreans – spread knowledge or “philosophy’s secrets” only to kinsmen and by mouth

o The were “jealous about their teachings”

o Didn’t want their ideas to be ridiculed

· “they played the same part among philosophers as drones among bees”

o compares “dull minded” people to drone bees

Tells about friends who encouraged him to publish his works

· cardinal of Capua, Schonberg and Tiedemann Giese

· “the crazier my doctrine of the earth’s motion now appeared to most people…so much the more admiration and thanks would it gain”

o ended up publishing it asking Pope Paul

Read over ancient texts to determine the motion of the Earth

· Cicero, Plutarch, etc.

Explains his book to Pope Paul III

· Found that going by the traditional view of Earth being the center of the universe, all the other motions of the “heavenly spheres” would not make sense

· Earth is also in motion

Confident – “I have no doubt that acute and leaned astronomers will agree with me if, as this discipline especially requires, they are willing to examine and consider, not superficially but thoroughly”

· “astronomy is written for astronomers – to them my work too will seem, unless I am mistaken, to make some contribution”

Galileo Galilei Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina

MEHAP-Andrew Fortugno

Perry- Galileo Galilei Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina and Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems- Ptolemaic and Copernican

Galileo Galilei Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina

Galileo argues God intended us to our senses and reason, which is against those who denounce that the earth, moves about the sun by citing biblical passages

· Men well grounded in astronomical and physical science were persuaded as soon as they received Galileo’s first message

· Those arguing would have us all together abandon reason and the evidence of our sense for in favor of some biblical passage.

· Galileo argue against condemning Copernicus’ book they way these people do, without understanding weight, or even reading it

· The bible does state the sun moves around the earth but, Galileo argues that nobody will deny that the bible is often very abstruse, and may say things which are quite different from what its bare words signify

· Galileo states that he does feel obliged to believe that that same God who has endowed us with senses, reason, and intellect has intended to forgo their use and by some other means to give us knowledge with which can obtain them.

Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems- Ptolemaic and Copernican

Galileo attacks the unquestionable acceptance of Aristotle’s teachings.

· Simplicio is an Aristotelian who asks who would we look to without Aristotle

· Salviati a spokesman for Galileo states that he reproaches those who gives themselves up as slaves to Aristotle and they are in fact only historians or memory experts, not philosophers.

· Sagredo introduces the problem with relaying on the authority of Aristotle

Copernicus "On THe Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres"

Thesis: Copernicus' theory of Earth's orbit proved so groundbreaking that Copernicus sought the protection of Pope Paul III against his critics.

I. Dedicated to Pope Paul III

a. Debated for a while on whether to publish

b. He feared ridicule of defying common ideas

c. Almost abandoned work when considering the scorn he would face

d. Encouraged by friends

II. Copernicus came up with his discovery after discovering differences in his study of the stars

III. Copernicus asks for Pope’s protection from disbelievers

a. Those who do not understand astronomy might destroy his theories

b. Those in astronomy will see some contribution in his papers

Bellarmine "Attack on the Copernican Theory"

Thesis: Bellarmine, a Cardinal, showed his strong disapproval for Galileo not to defend the Copernican Theory, for he expressed his displeasure with heliocentrism.

• 3 arguments against Copernican Theory in letter to Foscarini
• Affirmation that in reality the sun is the center of the world
• To think that the earth revolves around the sun is dangerous to express because it will irritate all philosophers and theologians while going against the Holy Scriptures (“claiming them false”)
• Council of Trent prohibits interpreting Scripture against the common consensus of the Holy Fathers
• “Agree with the literal translations and interpretation that the sun is in the heaven and turns around the earth with great sun”
• The earth is far from heaven and sits motionless at the center of the world
• Church won’t tolerate your sense of prudence
• “For it is heretical to say that Abraham did not have two children and Jacob twelve”; therefore, it is heretical to change the idea that the earth revolves around the sun
• If there was a true demonstration that the sun is the center of the world and the earth is in the heaven and that the sun does not circle the earth but the earth circles the sun = one would have to proceed with great care in explaining that theory
• And point out what is false about ancient theories
• But it is possible to demonstrate your ideas but first you need concrete and solid proof

Freakonomics of 18th Century Europe

Prompt: "The spectacular prosperity enjoyed by Europe in the 18th c. was dependent upon extra-European contributions."

Thesis: The prosperity enjoyed by Western Europe in the 18th c., namely by the Dutch, English, and French, was greatly but not entirely dependent upon extra-European contributions.

- Asia was a huge economic sector for GB and they imported tea and exported gold to Asia

-Africa played a huge role in the acquisition of gold by the British

-Africa provided slaves for the lucrative transatlantic slave trade

-America provided a market for slaves for the Dutch, English and French

-American sugar plantations were perhaps the single most prosperous asset in the French economy.

-The American colonies served as a market for British goods

-The East India Companies of the French, British, and Dutch were all extremely prosperous

-Europe was the continent to tie together the strands of the world, and was heftily rewarded for doing so.

Palmer Wars of Religion FRQ

Describe and analyze the changes that led to Europe's rapid population growth in the 18^th c.

1. Internal Improvements in health and agriculture

• New agricultural improvements allow for increased food production, the lowering of food prices, and an overall bettering of the agricultural system

  • Jethro Tull's new iron plow and seed drill

  • New farming techniques such as the open field system

• Crops from the new world lead to healthier diets for the Europeans, and thereby a longer lifespan and increased population

• Decline of the Bubonic plague and increased awareness to health and hygiene leads to longer lives as well

2. Improvements in the global economy and working class life

• The development of foreign markets helps spur competition and capitalist enterprises

• European nations now have established colonies that lead to profitable gains for the country

• Throughout Europe, merchant capitalism, domestic industry, and mercantilism had been and would continue to grow rapidly

• At home, the domestic working class had established a good system of working from their homes

• Paid based off of their production, not a salary, so hard work is encouraged

3. Political Improvements

• Overall improvement of law and order, much larger sense of security

• End of many of the brutal religious civil wars

• Now, wars are for territorial gains and are much more reserved and tactful, rather than bloody brawls

FRQ: 18th Century Population Growth

A combination of political stability and technological development, especially in agriculture and health, precipitated a dramatic rise of Europe's population in the eighteenth century.

Political stability

A. Prior to the eighteenth century, constant wars and violence prevented families from settling down

B. The rise of new, more stable nation states in both Western and Eastern Europe (during the first half of the 18th century) created a period of relative stability.

C. This allowed for more stable agriculture and family development, and ultimately a rise in population.

Advances in agriculture

A. Since the end of the Middle Ages, agricultural productivity in Europe had been slowly improving-- this ongoing trend continued, perhaps peaked, in the 18th century.

B. New crops: New World crops started to become prevalent in European diets. Most notable was the potato, which was both easy to grow and astonishingly nutritious.

C. New techniques: 18th century agricultural strategies dramatically increased the efficiency of agriculture

1. Mechanization- Jethro Tull's seed drill, the iron plough, etc.

2. Crop rotation- The "open field system" was replaced by crop rotation, which was both more effective and more efficient. By planting nitrogen replenishing legumes, farmers could replenish the soil while still growing economically useful products

D. The availability of more nutritional food increased Europe's carrying capacity.

A sharp decline in infectious disease

A. Diseases, such as the Bubonic Plague, had decimated European populations in previous centuries

B. Advances in science and sanitation helped keep the plague and other diseases at bay (smallpox vaccine, for instance)

C. Improved communication and centralization allowed rural people to be more integrated into mainstream society and medical care

D. Thus, Europeans could live longer, more stable lives.

An Assessment of Louis XIV

Duc de Saint-Simon observed Louis XIV and his court, and he documented the styles and strategies of his French leader in his Memoirs.

· The king liked no man in his court to be close to superior him in any way.

o Therefore he chose ministers that were ignorant – so that he could shape them and teach them trifling things

o The same with his generals – he liked to be credited with the great military successes

· This vanity cause his ruin

o He was praised too much

o He held little intelligence himself, and his subordinates discovered that all they had to do to succeed with him was to please him

· He was an abnormally jealous person and also very in-tune to his surroundings

o Mainly he noticed people, especially their absence

o He noticed even those who wished to remain unnoticed

o

· He had to know all that was going on at all times

o He had countless informants carrying him information all the time

o He also had a great memory, and was extremely unforgiving

· The King was magnificent, extremely polite to women, elegant in sports

o He was obsessed with love and was surrounded by women in his younger years

o He was also very religious, only missing mass once his whole life