Galileo Galilei Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina

MEHAP-Andrew Fortugno

Perry- Galileo Galilei Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina and Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems- Ptolemaic and Copernican

Galileo Galilei Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina

Galileo argues God intended us to our senses and reason, which is against those who denounce that the earth, moves about the sun by citing biblical passages

· Men well grounded in astronomical and physical science were persuaded as soon as they received Galileo’s first message

· Those arguing would have us all together abandon reason and the evidence of our sense for in favor of some biblical passage.

· Galileo argue against condemning Copernicus’ book they way these people do, without understanding weight, or even reading it

· The bible does state the sun moves around the earth but, Galileo argues that nobody will deny that the bible is often very abstruse, and may say things which are quite different from what its bare words signify

· Galileo states that he does feel obliged to believe that that same God who has endowed us with senses, reason, and intellect has intended to forgo their use and by some other means to give us knowledge with which can obtain them.

Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems- Ptolemaic and Copernican

Galileo attacks the unquestionable acceptance of Aristotle’s teachings.

· Simplicio is an Aristotelian who asks who would we look to without Aristotle

· Salviati a spokesman for Galileo states that he reproaches those who gives themselves up as slaves to Aristotle and they are in fact only historians or memory experts, not philosophers.

· Sagredo introduces the problem with relaying on the authority of Aristotle

Copernicus "On THe Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres"

Thesis: Copernicus' theory of Earth's orbit proved so groundbreaking that Copernicus sought the protection of Pope Paul III against his critics.

I. Dedicated to Pope Paul III

a. Debated for a while on whether to publish

b. He feared ridicule of defying common ideas

c. Almost abandoned work when considering the scorn he would face

d. Encouraged by friends

II. Copernicus came up with his discovery after discovering differences in his study of the stars

III. Copernicus asks for Pope’s protection from disbelievers

a. Those who do not understand astronomy might destroy his theories

b. Those in astronomy will see some contribution in his papers

Bellarmine "Attack on the Copernican Theory"

Thesis: Bellarmine, a Cardinal, showed his strong disapproval for Galileo not to defend the Copernican Theory, for he expressed his displeasure with heliocentrism.

• 3 arguments against Copernican Theory in letter to Foscarini
• Affirmation that in reality the sun is the center of the world
• To think that the earth revolves around the sun is dangerous to express because it will irritate all philosophers and theologians while going against the Holy Scriptures (“claiming them false”)
• Council of Trent prohibits interpreting Scripture against the common consensus of the Holy Fathers
• “Agree with the literal translations and interpretation that the sun is in the heaven and turns around the earth with great sun”
• The earth is far from heaven and sits motionless at the center of the world
• Church won’t tolerate your sense of prudence
• “For it is heretical to say that Abraham did not have two children and Jacob twelve”; therefore, it is heretical to change the idea that the earth revolves around the sun
• If there was a true demonstration that the sun is the center of the world and the earth is in the heaven and that the sun does not circle the earth but the earth circles the sun = one would have to proceed with great care in explaining that theory
• And point out what is false about ancient theories
• But it is possible to demonstrate your ideas but first you need concrete and solid proof

Freakonomics of 18th Century Europe

Prompt: "The spectacular prosperity enjoyed by Europe in the 18th c. was dependent upon extra-European contributions."

Thesis: The prosperity enjoyed by Western Europe in the 18th c., namely by the Dutch, English, and French, was greatly but not entirely dependent upon extra-European contributions.

- Asia was a huge economic sector for GB and they imported tea and exported gold to Asia

-Africa played a huge role in the acquisition of gold by the British

-Africa provided slaves for the lucrative transatlantic slave trade

-America provided a market for slaves for the Dutch, English and French

-American sugar plantations were perhaps the single most prosperous asset in the French economy.

-The American colonies served as a market for British goods

-The East India Companies of the French, British, and Dutch were all extremely prosperous

-Europe was the continent to tie together the strands of the world, and was heftily rewarded for doing so.

Palmer Wars of Religion FRQ

Describe and analyze the changes that led to Europe's rapid population growth in the 18^th c.

1. Internal Improvements in health and agriculture

• New agricultural improvements allow for increased food production, the lowering of food prices, and an overall bettering of the agricultural system

  • Jethro Tull's new iron plow and seed drill

  • New farming techniques such as the open field system

• Crops from the new world lead to healthier diets for the Europeans, and thereby a longer lifespan and increased population

• Decline of the Bubonic plague and increased awareness to health and hygiene leads to longer lives as well

2. Improvements in the global economy and working class life

• The development of foreign markets helps spur competition and capitalist enterprises

• European nations now have established colonies that lead to profitable gains for the country

• Throughout Europe, merchant capitalism, domestic industry, and mercantilism had been and would continue to grow rapidly

• At home, the domestic working class had established a good system of working from their homes

• Paid based off of their production, not a salary, so hard work is encouraged

3. Political Improvements

• Overall improvement of law and order, much larger sense of security

• End of many of the brutal religious civil wars

• Now, wars are for territorial gains and are much more reserved and tactful, rather than bloody brawls

FRQ: 18th Century Population Growth

A combination of political stability and technological development, especially in agriculture and health, precipitated a dramatic rise of Europe's population in the eighteenth century.

Political stability

A. Prior to the eighteenth century, constant wars and violence prevented families from settling down

B. The rise of new, more stable nation states in both Western and Eastern Europe (during the first half of the 18th century) created a period of relative stability.

C. This allowed for more stable agriculture and family development, and ultimately a rise in population.

Advances in agriculture

A. Since the end of the Middle Ages, agricultural productivity in Europe had been slowly improving-- this ongoing trend continued, perhaps peaked, in the 18th century.

B. New crops: New World crops started to become prevalent in European diets. Most notable was the potato, which was both easy to grow and astonishingly nutritious.

C. New techniques: 18th century agricultural strategies dramatically increased the efficiency of agriculture

1. Mechanization- Jethro Tull's seed drill, the iron plough, etc.

2. Crop rotation- The "open field system" was replaced by crop rotation, which was both more effective and more efficient. By planting nitrogen replenishing legumes, farmers could replenish the soil while still growing economically useful products

D. The availability of more nutritional food increased Europe's carrying capacity.

A sharp decline in infectious disease

A. Diseases, such as the Bubonic Plague, had decimated European populations in previous centuries

B. Advances in science and sanitation helped keep the plague and other diseases at bay (smallpox vaccine, for instance)

C. Improved communication and centralization allowed rural people to be more integrated into mainstream society and medical care

D. Thus, Europeans could live longer, more stable lives.

An Assessment of Louis XIV

Duc de Saint-Simon observed Louis XIV and his court, and he documented the styles and strategies of his French leader in his Memoirs.

· The king liked no man in his court to be close to superior him in any way.

o Therefore he chose ministers that were ignorant – so that he could shape them and teach them trifling things

o The same with his generals – he liked to be credited with the great military successes

· This vanity cause his ruin

o He was praised too much

o He held little intelligence himself, and his subordinates discovered that all they had to do to succeed with him was to please him

· He was an abnormally jealous person and also very in-tune to his surroundings

o Mainly he noticed people, especially their absence

o He noticed even those who wished to remain unnoticed

o

· He had to know all that was going on at all times

o He had countless informants carrying him information all the time

o He also had a great memory, and was extremely unforgiving

· The King was magnificent, extremely polite to women, elegant in sports

o He was obsessed with love and was surrounded by women in his younger years

o He was also very religious, only missing mass once his whole life